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Meaning in Literature
In reading literary works, we are concerned with the "meaning" of one literary piece or another. However, finding out what something really means is a difficult issue.
There are three ways to tackle meaning in literature.
Ⅰ. Meaning is what is intended by 1
Apart from reading an author"s work in question, readers need to
1) read 2 by the same author;
2) get familiar with 3 at the time;
3) get to know 4 and symbols of the time.
Ⅱ. Meaning exists "in" the text itself.
1) some people"s view: meaning is produced by the formal properties
of the text like 5 , etc.
2) speaker"s view: meaning is created by both conventions of
meaning and 6
Therefore, agreement on meaning could be created by 7
and conventions of usage. But different time periods and
different 8 perspectives could lead to different interpretations
of meaning in a text.
Ⅲ. Meaning is created by 9 .
1) meaning is 10 ;
2) meaning is 11 ;
3) meaning requires 12 ;
—practicing 13
—practicing 14
—background research in 15 , etc.

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other works[解析] 录音原文中提到：“首先，去图书馆阅读同一个作者的其他作品。”故此处应填other wo......

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study method study findings results discussion discoveries[原力原文] Writing Experimental ReportsGood morning, everyone. Today we ll discuss some preliminaries concerning how to write experimental reports.When you first signed up for a course in university, like a psychology course, chances are that you didn t really expect what was coming in your study; particularly, the course emphasis on methodology and statistics. For a few of you, this may have come as a pleasant surprise, provided that you have already known something about the course. For most, however, I dare say, it will undoubtedly have been a shock to the system.No doubt in other parts of your course study, you will read books and journals, examining, critically, models and theories, assumptions and hypotheses put forward by scholars and specialists. My task today is to help you understand some of the important features of experimental reports, because you will have to write up some kind of report of this nature if your course gives prominence to practical work, especially experimenting.Then what is an experimental reportAll a report is, really, is the place in which you tell the story of your study, like what you did, why you did it, what you found out in the process, and so on.In doing this, you are more like an ancient storyteller, whose stories were structured in accordance with widely recognized and long-established conventions, than a modern novelist who is free to dictate form as well as content. Moreover, like the storyteller of old, although you will invariably be telling your story to someone who knows quite a bit about it already, you are expected to present it as if it had never been heard before. This means that you will need to spell out the details and assume little knowledge of the area on the part of your audience.Then, perhaps, you may ask, what is the nature of the conventions governing the reportA clue, I think, can be found in its basic structure. A highly structured and disciplined report is written in sections, and these sections, by and large, follow an established sequence.What this means is that, in the telling, your story is to be cut up into chunks: different parts of the story are to appear in different places in the report. What you did and why you did it appear in the section called INTRODUCTION.How you did it is in the METHOD section. And what you found out is in the RESULT section. And, finally, what you think it shows appears in the DISCUSSIONpart. As you can see, the report, therefore, is a formal document composed of a series of sections in which specific information is expected to appear. 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Indeed, it is a good idea, if you can, to get just such a person to read your report before handing it in.The demands and expectations placed upon you will of course, vary with your experience of report writing.Early on in your study, as an author of experimental reports, less will be expected of you than later. At this early stage, you will be expected mainly to show that you understand what you did in your report and its implications,together with evidence that you have, at least a basic grasp of the demands of the report s format.Later on, however, you will be expected to pay more attention to this research significance of what you did.The why you did it part will become more important because in being responsible for the choice of topic and design, you will be expected to be able to justify this choice. So you must be able to tell us why it is, that given the options available to you, you decided to conduct your particular study. You will need, therefore, to develop the habit of thinking about how the ideas that you are entertaining for your experiment or study will look in the report, paying particular attention to how they will fit into the part of INTRODUCTION. Specific dangers that you must watch out for here are:First, a lack of adequate material to put in the section;And second, the undertaking of a project that lacks any research justification, because it is based on assumptions that are contradicted by existing findings in the area.Thinking clearly in advance will help you to avoid making these mistakes.OK. Today we ve had a brief look at the format of an experimental report, what each section is about and some of the basic issues like reader awareness, so on and so forth. Next time, we will discuss how to write up the INTRODUCTION section.[解析] 原文说，实验报告包括“研究问题领域”“研究目的”以及what you found out in the process。因此，应填study findings、results或记忆中的其他内容。

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the author[原力原文] Good morning. In today s lecture we shall discuss what meaning is in literary works. When we read novels, poems, etc. we invariably ask ourselves a question, that is What does the writer mean here In other words, we are interested in finding out the meaning. But meaning is a difficult issue in literature. How do we know what a work of literature is supposed to mean Or what its real meaning is I d like to discuss three ways to explain what meaning is. Number One: meaning is what is intended by the author.Number Two: meaning is created by and contained in the text itself and Number Three: meaning is created by the reader.Now let s take a look at the first approach, that is, meaning is what is intended by the author.Does a work of literature mean what the author intended to mean And if so, how can we tell If all the evidence we have is the text itself and nothing else, we can only guess what ideas the author had according to our understanding of literature and the world. In order to have a better idea of what one particular author means in one of his works, I d suggest that you do the following. First, go to the library and read other works by the same author.Second, get to know something about what sort of meanings seemed to be common in literary works in that particular tradition and at that time. In other words, we need to find out what the literary trends were in those days.And last, get to know what were the cultural values and symbols of the time.I guess you can understand the author s meaning much more clearly after you do the related background research.Now let s move on to the second approach to meaning, that is, meaning is created by and contained in the text itself. Does the meaning exist in the text Some scholars argue that the formal properties of the text, like grammar, diction, uses of image and so on and so forth, contain and produce the meaning,so that any educated or competent reader will inevitably come to more or less the same interpretation as any other. As far as I am concerned, the meaning is not only to be found in the literary traditions and grammatical conventions of meaning but also in the cultural codes which have been handed down from generation to generation.So when we and other readers including the author as well are said to come up with similar interpretations, that kind of agreement could be created by common traditions and conventions of usage, practice and interpretation.In other words, we have some kind of shared basis for the same interpretation. But that does not mean that readers agree on the meaning all the time. In different time periods with different cultural perspectives, including class, belief and worldview, readers, I mean, competent readers,can arrive at different interpretations of texts. So meaning in the text is determined by how readers see it. It is not contained in the text in a fixed way.Now the third approach to meaning, that is, meaning is created by the reader.Does the meaning then exist in the reader s response In a sense, this is inescapable. Meaning exists only insofar as it means to someone. And literary works are written in order to evoke sets of responses in the reader. This leads us to consider three essential issues. The first is, meaning is social, that is, language and conventions work only as shared meaning.And our way of viewing the world can exist only as shared or sharable. Similarly when we read a text, we are participating in social or cultural meaning, so response to a piece of literary work is not merely an individual thing, but is part of culture and history. Second, meaning is contextual.If you change the context, you often change the meaning. And last, meaning requires reader competency.Texts constructed as literature have their own ways of expressions or sometimes we say styles. And the more we know of them, the more we can understand the text. Consequently, there is in regard to the question of meaning the matter of reader competency as it is called the experience and knowledge of comprehending literary texts. Your professors might insist that you practice and improve competency in readingand they might also insist that you interpret meaning in the context of the whole work. But you may have to learn other competencies, too.For instance, in reading Mulk Raj Anand s The Untouchables, you might have to learn what the social structure of India was like at that time, what traditions of writing were in practice in India in the early 1930s, what political, cultural and personal influences Mulk Raj Anand came under when constructing the imaginative world of this short novel.OK, you may see that this idea that meaning requires competency in reading, in fact, brings us back to the historically situated understandings of an author and his works, as we mentioned earlier in this lecture: to different conventions and ways of reading and writing and to the point that meaning requires a negotiation between cultural meanings across time, culture, class etc. As readers you have in fact acquired a good deal of competency already, but you should acquire more. The essential point of this lecture is that meaning in literature is a phenomenon that is not easily located, that meaning is historical, social and derived from the traditions of reading and thinking and understanding of the world that you are educated about. Thank you for your attention.[解析] 录音原文开篇就提到了讲座的主题是literary works“文学作品”，在提到解释作品意义是什么的时候，讲座人提到了三种方法，并分别具体论述了这三种方法。第一种是作者的意图what is intended by the author，由此可知答案为the author。

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