填空题

Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinquency (crimes committed by young people) focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. Theories on the individual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior they were not sufficiently penalized for previous misdeeds or that they have learned criminal behavior through with others. Theories focusing on the role of society suggest that children commit crimes in to their failure to rise above their socioeconomic status, as a rejection of middle-class values. Most theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, the fact that children from wealthy homes also commit crimes. The latter may commit crimes lack of adequate parental control. All theories, however, are tentative and are to criticism. Changes in the social structure may indirecfiy juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment make gainful employment increasingly difficult to obtain. The resulting discontent may in lead more youths into criminal behavior. Families have also changes these years. More families consist of one-parent households or two working parents; , children are likely to have less supervision at home was common in the traditional family This lack of parental supervision is thought to be an influence on juvenile crime rates. Other causes of offensive acts include frustration or failure in school, the increased of drugs and alcohol, and the growing of child abuse and child neglect. All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, a direct causal relationship has not yet been established.

【参考答案】

D

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The traditional demands on writing scientific papers

A． require well worked-out methods in experiment.
B． ask for elimination of any accidental outcomes.
C． refuse inconformity of conclusions with results.
D． conflict with actual conditions as often as not.

填空题

A large proportion of the studies of behavior used animals as subjects, especially pigeons, rats, and rabbits. There are a number of reasons why researchers in this field frequently choose to conduct their experiments with nonhuman subjects. First of all, the possibility of a placebo effect is minimized with animal subjects. 46)Whereas a human subject’’s behavior may be drastically altered by the knowledge that he or she is being observed, this is unlikely with animal subjects because most studies with animal subjects are conducted in such a way that the animal does not know its behavior is being monitored and recorded. Furthermore, it is unlikely that an animal subject will be motivated either to please or displease the experimenter, a motive that can ruin a study with human subjects. A second reason for using animal subjects is convenience. The species most commonly used as subjects are easy and inexpensive to care for, and animals of a specific age and sex can be obtained in any quantities the experimenter needs. 47)Once animal subjects are obtained, their participation is as regular as the experimenter’’s--animal subjects never fail to show up for their appointments, which is unfortunately not the case with human subjects.48) Probably the biggest advantage of domesticated animal subjects is that their environment can be controlled to a much greater extent than is possible with either wild animals or human subjects. This is especially important in experiments on learning, where previous experience can have a large effect on a subject’’s performance in a new learning situation. Likewise, if a human subject tries to solve some mystery as part of a learning experiment, the experimenter cannot be sure how many similar problems the subject has encountered in his lifetime. 49) When animals are bred and raised in the laboratory, however, their environments can be constructed to make sure that they have no contact with objects or events similar to those they will encounter in the experiment.A final reason for using animal subjects is that of comparative simplicity. 50)Just as a child trying to learn electricity is better off starting with a flashlight than a radio, researchers may have a better chance of discovering the basic principles of learning by examining creatures that are less intelligent and less complex than human beings The assumption here is that although human beings differ from other animals in some respects, they are also similar in some respects, and it is these commonalities that can be investigated with animal subjects.